Question 5

Stage 10: Schools

In ancient Roman education, schools provided three main stages for students, each increasing in complexity and specialization. The first stage was run by a teacher called a ludi magister. At around age 7, children from families who could afford it, like Quintus and Lucia, would start school in a class of about thirty students. Lessons were often held in public spaces or rented rooms rather than formal classrooms, which could be noisy and distracting. The school day lasted for six hours with a midday break, and during the journey to and from school, students were accompanied by an enslaved guardian called a paedagogus who ensured their safety and behavior. Students typically sat on benches and wrote on wax-coated wooden tablets using a stylus, which allowed them to erase and rewrite by smoothing the wax.

In the second stage of education, boys from wealthy families moved to a school led by a grammaticus around the age of 11. Here, they studied Greek and Roman literature, including Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, as well as works by Virgil and Horace. This stage focused on reading aloud, analyzing grammar, and memorizing passages, as memorization was valued in Roman society as a mark of education. Greek was emphasized since it was widely spoken and considered culturally important. The goal was to gain a deep understanding of literature, history, and geography, which helped students understand references to famous people and places. This education allowed students like Quintus to make a good impression by quoting classics and displaying their literary knowledge.

These two stages created a foundation for students, with only a select few advancing to the third stage, where they would learn the art of public speaking, which was crucial for any Roman aspiring to public life.

Stage 11: Local Government & Elections

In Pompeii, local politics were an important part of daily life, and the annual elections in March were highly anticipated. The elections were lively and full of energy, with candidates using public speeches to persuade the voters, as public speaking was an essential skill for anyone seeking office. The elections were only open to freeborn, male citizens, and the voting determined the leaders of the community. There were two pairs of elected officials: the duoviri (or duumviri), who were responsible for legal matters and acted as judges in court, and the aediles, who oversaw public services such as markets, baths, and the water supply. These officials were expected to fund public events, such as games and entertainments, to show their gratitude to voters.

The wealthy citizens of Pompeii, like the Holconii and Flacci families, often held these important positions, contributing to the construction of public buildings and putting on extravagant shows. Candidates were expected to wear a toga whitened with chalk, symbolizing their candidacy. As they moved through the streets, their agents would distribute bribes and make promises, hoping to win support. This system of bribery was illegal, but common, and candidates often promised to host games or repair buildings as a form of persuasion. Additionally, those who served in government might get their names inscribed on public buildings, and could even have statues erected in their honor.

The town council consisted of 100 members, many of whom had already held office as duoviri or aediles. The council members were not elected by the public but chosen by their peers. Although public office was unpaid, it offered social prestige and a position of importance in the community. The local government of Pompeii allowed the town to fund civic projects and maintain order, but if the officials failed to do so, the central government in Rome could step in and take control, as happened after a riot in AD 59. Election campaigns often included slogans and graffiti, with support from various trade groups, reflecting the wide interest in local politics among Pompeii’s residents, even those who couldn’t vote.

Stage 12: Destruction & Excavation of Pompeii

In AD 79, Pompeii and nearby towns experienced a catastrophic eruption from Mount Vesuvius. After years of dormancy, Vesuvius exploded with immense power, sending pyroclastic flows and ash clouds across the region, devastating Pompeii, Herculaneum, and other communities. Though traditionally dated to August 24, recent archaeological finds suggest the eruption likely occurred in October, as evidenced by carbonized remains of autumnal crops, like ripe pomegranates, and fresh wine storage in jars.

Eyewitness Account by Pliny the Younger

The eruption's events were famously recorded by Pliny the Younger, who watched from Misenum. In a letter to the historian Tacitus, Pliny described the eruption’s ash cloud as resembling an Italian stone pine, with a high trunk that branched out at the top. His description led to the modern scientific term “Plinian eruption” for volcanic events of this kind. Tragically, his uncle, Pliny the Elder, died while trying to rescue people from the disaster.

The Devastation of Pompeii and Herculaneum

Pompeii was blanketed in hot stones and ash up to 6 meters deep, while Herculaneum was engulfed by a pyroclastic flow that later hardened into volcanic rock. Many residents tried to escape, but some stayed, hoping the storm would pass, only to die from intense heat, gases, and ash. The towns were ultimately abandoned, their ruins lost under new layers of soil and forgotten through the Middle Ages, with locals only vaguely remembering the location, referring to the area as civita, meaning “city.”

Rediscovery and Excavation

In 1594, workers on a water channel accidentally uncovered parts of Pompeii, though they didn't recognize the significance. In 1748, King Charles III of Naples began more systematic excavations, but his focus was on treasure hunting rather than archaeology. Early excavations were chaotic, with engineers removing valuable items to decorate royal palaces. Only in the early 19th century did scientists begin systematic excavations. Fragile artifacts were sent to the National Museum in Naples, while other objects were preserved in situ.

Preservation of Artifacts and Casts

Unlike Pompeii, Herculaneum was buried under a solid rock layer, creating an airtight seal that preserved perishable materials like wooden doors and cloth. In Pompeii, these materials decayed, leaving hollow spaces in the ash. Archaeologists poured liquid plaster into these voids to create casts of objects, animals, and human bodies. Recent laser scans of these casts have revealed some were altered to make them more “relatable” to the public, with details added to enhance facial features, clothing folds, or even limbs.

A Glimpse into Daily Life

Archaeologists continue to uncover parts of Pompeii, providing detailed insights into Roman life. Each new house reveals everyday items like coins, cookware, cosmetics, toys, and even wall paintings. Some homes contain the names of families who once lived there, such as Lucius Caecilius Iucundus.

Continuing Discoveries

Though two-thirds of Pompeii and only a small portion of Herculaneum have been excavated, each discovery brings us closer to understanding the daily lives of the people who once lived in these bustling towns before their sudden destruction.